General Overview

Chapter 2 is about development in Africa before European imperialism. African societies were initially communal and family centric. Many African religions were ancestral. Social relations also revolved around family and kinship. In addition, family dominated land and labor, the two primary factors of production, as well as the distribution of goods, which was based on kinship ties. All individuals in early African societies had duties and rights, with age being the primary determinant of each.

A transitional stage followed communalism. Most African societies between the 5th century and 1500 moved from communalism toward something resembling European feudalism (though few African societies became fully feudal). Inequality in the distribution of land and social products increased during this period. New social formations emerged, such as fishing societies, cultivators, and traders. The rise in labor specialization cut across family ties and increased production. Technological advances also drove development, notably in the areas of trapping, building, medicine, and agriculture. Manufacturing flourished during the transitional period, with Africans producing a wide range of goods, such as farming equipment and weapons. Trade became increasingly important, including long-distance trade across the Sahara. Communities developed a barter system and standardized the measurement of goods.