The Johnson-Reed Immigration Act of 1924 ushered in a regime of immigration restriction, ending the period of open European immigration. It created a system of border surveillance and visa controls. Two major consequences followed: a re-mapping of the ethno-racial contours of the US, and the creation of illegal immigration as a major problem.

Before the 1920s, Asian immigration had been restricted. The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed in 1882. A diplomatic agreement between Japan and the US limited Japanese immigration and the Immigration Act of 1917 excluded Asian Indians and all others in the region. Deeming Asians racially ineligible for citizenship, these laws cast Asians as “permanent foreigners” (18) and marginalized them. The Courts did not intervene and instead gave Congress free rein to determine immigration policy.

During and after World War I, several political and economic trends converged to set the groundwork for immigration restrictions. Wartime nationalism and nativism caused people to condemn radicals who were associated with foreigners. Secondly, there was no longer an economic need for workers. To the contrary, there were concerns about job scarcity. Thirdly, the international system put in place following World War I favored territorial integrity of nation-states and brought about passport controls.