“A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of Communism.” 

Marx employs the metaphor of a “spectre” to describe communism and its impact on the ruling powers of Europe. This metaphor communicates to the reader that communism’s ghostly presence is frightening to these powers though it is not yet clearly defined.

“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” 

The core innovation of Marx’s sociopolitical theory is revealed in this statement: people are divided by their economic class. To Marx, all of human history is characterized by the tension that exists between the more powerful classes and the weaker ones.

“Each step in the development of the bourgeoisie was accompanied by a corresponding political advance of that class. […] The executive of the modern State is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.” 

To Marx, political power is tied to class power. The most powerful economic class—in the epoch of capitalism, the bourgeoisie—has the power of the state at its disposal to protect its interests. This phenomenon is one of the reasons behind Marx’s insistence on violent reform; change cannot be affected within a system that is stacked against the working class.